Education & Training of Surveyors
AUBREY BARKER FUND
Charity Commission No. 263855
AUBREY BARKER FUND
Charity Commission No. 263855
THE WINNER OF THE CASLE LECTURE PRIZE 2008 is 27-year-old Terri Richardson.
a MPhil/PhD student of the Department of Surveying and Land Information at the University
of the West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago.
Graduated with Upper 2nd Class Honors in BSc.
Surveying and Land Information.
of the West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago.
Graduated with Upper 2nd Class Honors in BSc.
Surveying and Land Information.
The Paper is reproduced here in full.
AN ASSESSMENT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO:
A GEOINFORMATICS APPROACH
Abstract
Ad hoc land use planning pays very little consideration to environmental impact or physical
constraints, which has given rise to urban sprawl, resulting in physical, socio-economic and
environmental problems. In Trinidad and Tobago this can be seen as a result of the country’s
economic progress. Urbanization and deforestation are fragmenting the natural landscape and
reducing the viability of species that play important functional role in ecosystems.
In an effort to have a sustainable future it is important to know and view the country as a whole
when it relates to environmental impact and long term planning. The future patterns of land use
and land cover must be understood at a series of spatial and temporal scales to distinguish and
predict the behaviour and impacts of local land use, and other environmental and social systems.
This research uses remotely sensed images to build a times series of LU/C maps to evaluate the
changes and determining the driving forces responsible for these changes. The goal is to undertake
a detailed, spatially explicit inventory of local trends in land use and land cover changes. This data
coupled with the interdisciplinary assortment of scientific methods will be used to investigate the
causes and consequences of land use/cover change across a range of spatial and temporal scales.
The result of this research would contribute to developing recommendations to enhance
sustainability and to foster resilience.
constraints, which has given rise to urban sprawl, resulting in physical, socio-
economic progress. Urbanization and deforestation are fragmenting the natural landscape and
reducing the viability of species that play important functional role in ecosystems.
In an effort to have a sustainable future it is important to know and view the country as a whole
when it relates to environmental impact and long term planning. The future patterns of land use
and land cover must be understood at a series of spatial and temporal scales to distinguish and
predict the behaviour and impacts of local land use, and other environmental and social systems.
This research uses remotely sensed images to build a times series of LU/C maps to evaluate the
changes and determining the driving forces responsible for these changes. The goal is to undertake
a detailed, spatially explicit inventory of local trends in land use and land cover changes. This data
coupled with the interdisciplinary assortment of scientific methods will be used to investigate the
causes and consequences of land use/cover change across a range of spatial and temporal scales.
The result of this research would contribute to developing recommendations to enhance
sustainability and to foster resilience.
1 Background
Trinidad and Tobago has become the leading Caribbean producer of oil and gas. The country has
earned a reputation as an excellent investment site for international businesses. Tourism is a
growing sector, although not proportionately as important as in many other Caribbean islands.
The economy benefits from a growing trade surplus. Economic growth in 2006 reached 12.6% as
prices for oil, petrochemicals, and liquefied natural gas remained high, and foreign direct investment
continued to grow to support expanded capacity in the energy sector (CIA 2007).
The growing economy resulted in changes in the landscape of Trinidad and Tobago from the 1970’s
to present. Development activities have left the country with an “environment deficit” (EMA 1996).
The rapid industrialization and urbanization is resulting in many environmental implications and is
continuing to exert pressure on the landscape. The environmental deficit and implications are
manifested in the form of industrial and domestic pollution of the rivers and coastal water, loss and
alterations of forest habitats and watersheds, the degradation of marine ecosystems, loss of wetlands
and loss of agricultural productivity (CSO 2007). With the government’s initiative of acquiring first
world or developed nation status by the year 2020, greater land use and land cover changes will
occur.
An analysis of the current situation with regards to key ecosystem services provided by the natural
environment alarmingly indicates that there is much work to be done (Ministry of Finance and
Planning 2006). In the country’s pursuit of economic development, the aspect of irreversibility
must be considered, in the context of environmental degradation and loss of biodiversity.
In recent years, rapid urbanization and development has fragmented natural landscapes and reduced
the viability of species that play an important functional role in ecosystems (EMA 1996). One may
examine the state of the natural vegetation cover of the country to support these conclusions. In
Trinidad and Tobago it can be observed that one danger of economic diversification is that it comes
at the expense of the natural resource. While the country’s economic growth appears to be an
effective measure of improving the quality of life, it represents a temporary solution, if it is achieved
through resource depletion and the permanent destruction of the ecological capital (EMA 1996).
The environment and development are inseparable. Development cannot survive upon a
deteriorating environment resource base and the environment cannot be protected when growth
leaves out the costs of environmental destruction (WCED 1987). Hence, failure to manage the
environment and to sustain development threatens to overwhelm all countries. Consequently, new
development models have been developed to replace the traditional method of development.
Sustainable development is a development path that meets the major needs of the present without
endangering subsequent needs and aspirations of future generation allowing for the conservation
of nature (Gotlieb 1996). Sustainability is a process involving people, institution, natural resources
and the environment. Sustainability is an attempt to provide the best outcomes for the human and
natural environments both now and into the indefinite future (Munier 2005). It requires that the
bio-physical “limit to growth” guide the utilization of natural recourses or life support systems
(Barbados Ministry of Housing 2004).
earned a reputation as an excellent investment site for international businesses. Tourism is a
growing sector, although not proportionately as important as in many other Caribbean islands.
The economy benefits from a growing trade surplus. Economic growth in 2006 reached 12.6% as
prices for oil, petrochemicals, and liquefied natural gas remained high, and foreign direct investment
continued to grow to support expanded capacity in the energy sector (CIA 2007).
The growing economy resulted in changes in the landscape of Trinidad and Tobago from the 1970’s
to present. Development activities have left the country with an “environment deficit” (EMA 1996).
The rapid industrialization and urbanization is resulting in many environmental implications and is
continuing to exert pressure on the landscape. The environmental deficit and implications are
manifested in the form of industrial and domestic pollution of the rivers and coastal water, loss and
alterations of forest habitats and watersheds, the degradation of marine ecosystems, loss of wetlands
and loss of agricultural productivity (CSO 2007). With the government’s initiative of acquiring first
world or developed nation status by the year 2020, greater land use and land cover changes will
occur.
An analysis of the current situation with regards to key ecosystem services provided by the natural
environment alarmingly indicates that there is much work to be done (Ministry of Finance and
Planning 2006). In the country’s pursuit of economic development, the aspect of irreversibility
must be considered, in the context of environmental degradation and loss of biodiversity.
In recent years, rapid urbanization and development has fragmented natural landscapes and reduced
the viability of species that play an important functional role in ecosystems (EMA 1996). One may
examine the state of the natural vegetation cover of the country to support these conclusions. In
Trinidad and Tobago it can be observed that one danger of economic diversification is that it comes
at the expense of the natural resource. While the country’s economic growth appears to be an
effective measure of improving the quality of life, it represents a temporary solution, if it is achieved
through resource depletion and the permanent destruction of the ecological capital (EMA 1996).
The environment and development are inseparable. Development cannot survive upon a
deteriorating environment resource base and the environment cannot be protected when growth
leaves out the costs of environmental destruction (WCED 1987). Hence, failure to manage the
environment and to sustain development threatens to overwhelm all countries. Consequently, new
development models have been developed to replace the traditional method of development.
Sustainable development is a development path that meets the major needs of the present without
endangering subsequent needs and aspirations of future generation allowing for the conservation
of nature (Gotlieb 1996). Sustainability is a process involving people, institution, natural resources
and the environment. Sustainability is an attempt to provide the best outcomes for the human and
natural environments both now and into the indefinite future (Munier 2005). It requires that the
bio-
2 Sustainable Development Indicators
Sustainable development indicators (SDI) are various statistical values that collectively measure
the capacity to meet present and future needs. The goal of the sustainability indicators is to show
the state of human, environmental and economic conditions, the trend of changes in these
conditions, and identifying issues that need to be addressed within each of these three pillars of
sustainability. Development is often achieved through trade-offs between these pillars. Therefore,
to promote sustainability, it has become increasingly important to be able to measure how
vulnerable each aspect is to damage and to identify ways of building resilience (Bell and Morse
2003). The indicators will provide information crucial to decisions of national policy and to the
general public.
the capacity to meet present and future needs. The goal of the sustainability indicators is to show
the state of human, environmental and economic conditions, the trend of changes in these
conditions, and identifying issues that need to be addressed within each of these three pillars of
sustainability. Development is often achieved through trade-
vulnerable each aspect is to damage and to identify ways of building resilience (Bell and Morse
2003). The indicators will provide information crucial to decisions of national policy and to the
general public.
2.1 Land Use/Cover Change and Sustainable Development
Changes in the nature of land use activities often results in land cover changes. Many regions
around the world undergo rapid changes in land cover because of human activities and natural
phenomena, but land cover today is altered principally by direct human use (Jensen 1996; Meyer
1995). Resulting land cover changes affect biodiversity, water and radiation budgets, trace gas
emissions and other processes that, cumulatively, affect global climate and biosphere (USEPA
1999). An example of this is the increase of coastal human population growth accompanied by
agricultural, industrial and urban development that has led to an unparalleled acceleration of
contamination and nutrient input into coastal estuaries and their watersheds, thus exacerbating
environmental stress and degradation of the ecosystems (Yang and Liu 2005). Other specific uses
of this nature include agriculture and livestock raising, forest harvesting and management, and
urban and suburban construction and development. This pressure on the land has enormous
impacts in terms of land degradation, ecosystem resilience, and soil and water conservation.
Land cover change is one of the most important variables of environmental change and represents
the largest threat to ecological systems (Foody 2003). It has become a central component in current
strategies for managing natural resources and monitoring environmental changes (Brandon and
Bottomley 1998). Time series analysis of land use/cover (LU/C) change and the identification of
the driving forces responsible for these changes are needed for the sustainable management of
natural resources and also for projecting future LU/C trajectories (Giri et al. 2003).
around the world undergo rapid changes in land cover because of human activities and natural
phenomena, but land cover today is altered principally by direct human use (Jensen 1996; Meyer
1995). Resulting land cover changes affect biodiversity, water and radiation budgets, trace gas
emissions and other processes that, cumulatively, affect global climate and biosphere (USEPA
1999). An example of this is the increase of coastal human population growth accompanied by
agricultural, industrial and urban development that has led to an unparalleled acceleration of
contamination and nutrient input into coastal estuaries and their watersheds, thus exacerbating
environmental stress and degradation of the ecosystems (Yang and Liu 2005). Other specific uses
of this nature include agriculture and livestock raising, forest harvesting and management, and
urban and suburban construction and development. This pressure on the land has enormous
impacts in terms of land degradation, ecosystem resilience, and soil and water conservation.
Land cover change is one of the most important variables of environmental change and represents
the largest threat to ecological systems (Foody 2003). It has become a central component in current
strategies for managing natural resources and monitoring environmental changes (Brandon and
Bottomley 1998). Time series analysis of land use/cover (LU/C) change and the identification of
the driving forces responsible for these changes are needed for the sustainable management of
natural resources and also for projecting future LU/C trajectories (Giri et al. 2003).
2.2 Proposed Sustainability Indicators
This study is not concerned with institutional and pure socio-economic indicators (such as land
tenure, ownership rights, access to land). Instead, this research focuses on the biophysical and
some socio-economic/demographic indicators at the national or local levels. This study has opted
to adopt indicators developed to review the country’s environmental vulnerability to natural risk
and to human. The index is based on the premise that the vulnerability of the environment to
events in the near future can be determined from the calculated probability of their actual
occurrence in the recent past (Agard and Gowrie 2003). Table 1 lists some indicators that this
research is proposing for the assessment of sustainable development. The proposed indicators
best represent the magnitude of LU/C changes and the threats on the stability and resilience of
the ecosystem. As can be seen in Table 1, the first four sets of indicators are chosen because they
can be extracted and updated, directly or indirectly, using remote sensing techniques. The
remaining indicators have to be acquired from other auxiliary sources.
some socio-
and to human. The index is based on the premise that the vulnerability of the environment to
events in the near future can be determined from the calculated probability of their actual
occurrence in the recent past (Agard and Gowrie 2003). Table 1 lists some indicators that this
research is proposing for the assessment of sustainable development. The proposed indicators
best represent the magnitude of LU/C changes and the threats on the stability and resilience of
the ecosystem. As can be seen in Table 1, the first four sets of indicators are chosen because they
can be extracted and updated, directly or indirectly, using remote sensing techniques. The
remaining indicators have to be acquired from other auxiliary sources.
Table 1: Proposed sustainability indicators
Table 1: Proposed sustainability indicators
2.3 Remote Sensing and Land Use/Cover Changes
One essential component of sustainable development is information, which aids in planning,
decision making and monitoring whether the activity is indeed sustainable (Skidmore et al. 1997).
Timely and accurate change detection can provide the foundation to understand relationships and
interactions between human and natural phenomena to better manage and use resources
(Lu et al. 2004; Muttitanon and Tripathi 2005).
As a result of technological advancements, changes of the earth’s surface have become visible by
satellite imagery. This has lead to remote sensing becoming the most effective tool for assessing
and monitoring all these transitions (Deer 1995). Therefore satellite remote sensing has become a
major data source for different change detection applications, because of the repetitive data
acquisition capabilities, digital format suitability for computer processing and lower cost than those
associated with traditional methods (Coppin et al. 2002; Deer 1995; Lu et al. 2004). In remote
sensing, change detection and monitoring involves the use of multi-date images to evaluate
differences and quantitatively analyse the temporal effects of the phenomenon between acquisition
dates of images (Lu et al. 2004).
To implement digital change detection techniques, three major steps are involved (Lu et al. 2004).
The first step is image pre-processing including geometrical rectification and image registration,
radiometric atmospheric correction and topographic correction if the study area is in mountainous
regions. The second step is the selection of suitable techniques to implement change detection
analyses, while the last step is accuracy assessment. The reliability of the change detection process
is strongly affected by various environmental characteristics and atmospheric effects (Jensen 1996;
Lillesand et al. 2004). For the successful use of remote sensing for change detection, data used for
monitoring should be acquired by the same sensor and be recorded using the same spatial resolution,
viewing geometry, spectral band radiometric resolution and time of day (Lillesand et al. 2004;
Lu et al. 2004).
In order to analyse the function of change detection many change detection methods have been
developed to better observe and define change features using remotely sensed data
(Cakir et al. 2006). These methods have been summarised and reviewed in Coppin et al. (2002),
Deer (1995), Jensen (1996), Lillesand et al. (2004), Lu et al. (2004) and Mundia and Aniya (2005).
decision making and monitoring whether the activity is indeed sustainable (Skidmore et al. 1997).
Timely and accurate change detection can provide the foundation to understand relationships and
interactions between human and natural phenomena to better manage and use resources
(Lu et al. 2004; Muttitanon and Tripathi 2005).
As a result of technological advancements, changes of the earth’s surface have become visible by
satellite imagery. This has lead to remote sensing becoming the most effective tool for assessing
and monitoring all these transitions (Deer 1995). Therefore satellite remote sensing has become a
major data source for different change detection applications, because of the repetitive data
acquisition capabilities, digital format suitability for computer processing and lower cost than those
associated with traditional methods (Coppin et al. 2002; Deer 1995; Lu et al. 2004). In remote
sensing, change detection and monitoring involves the use of multi-
dates of images (Lu et al. 2004).
To implement digital change detection techniques, three major steps are involved (Lu et al. 2004).
The first step is image pre-
regions. The second step is the selection of suitable techniques to implement change detection
analyses, while the last step is accuracy assessment. The reliability of the change detection process
is strongly affected by various environmental characteristics and atmospheric effects (Jensen 1996;
Lillesand et al. 2004). For the successful use of remote sensing for change detection, data used for
monitoring should be acquired by the same sensor and be recorded using the same spatial resolution,
viewing geometry, spectral band radiometric resolution and time of day (Lillesand et al. 2004;
Lu et al. 2004).
In order to analyse the function of change detection many change detection methods have been
developed to better observe and define change features using remotely sensed data
(Cakir et al. 2006). These methods have been summarised and reviewed in Coppin et al. (2002),
Deer (1995), Jensen (1996), Lillesand et al. (2004), Lu et al. (2004) and Mundia and Aniya (2005).
3 Research Aim and Objectives
The overriding purpose of this study is to contribute to the sustainability and continued existence
of agriculture and natural resources, by addressing the identified lack of information relevant to
assessing the sustainability of land use patterns in Trinidad and Tobago. This research project will
seek to develop a framework to quantify changes in natural resource and urban development
through mapping and analysis of land use/cover changes. Emphasis will be placed on extracting
useful data on land properties from remotely sensed imagery.
For developmental planning, it is imperative to integrate various data available from different
sources which may be of different scales, format and projections. The geographical information
system combines all such data including satellite data, to form a complete system. The aim of the
study is then to encompass the following tasks:
of agriculture and natural resources, by addressing the identified lack of information relevant to
assessing the sustainability of land use patterns in Trinidad and Tobago. This research project will
seek to develop a framework to quantify changes in natural resource and urban development
through mapping and analysis of land use/cover changes. Emphasis will be placed on extracting
useful data on land properties from remotely sensed imagery.
For developmental planning, it is imperative to integrate various data available from different
sources which may be of different scales, format and projections. The geographical information
system combines all such data including satellite data, to form a complete system. The aim of the
study is then to encompass the following tasks:
1. To review environmental and socio-economic activities from the 1970’s to present;
2. To develop a remote sensing based methodology to map and detect land use/cover changes;
3. To quantify and analysis of spatial and temporal land use/cover changes in Trinidad and
Tobago from the 1970’s to present;
4. To assess the correlation between land cover/use dynamics with socio-economic data to
better understand the factors influencing changes;
5. To assess how these trend have affected the food production and biodiversity on the islands
4 Methodology
To quantify and analyse the interaction between natural and urban development in Trinidad and
Tobago this study has developed a methodology that is schematically depicted in Figure 1. The
main thrust in the methodology is the development of a time series of images covering the 1970’s
to present. This will be acquired and assembled to depict the nature of land use/cover in selected
sites during several epochs. This information would be combined with other available
environmental, demographic, and economical data in order to define a set of, mainly spatially-
land management and physical development polices and practices would provide recommendations
into the most appropriate scenario for sustainable development.
Tobago this study has developed a methodology that is schematically depicted in Figure 1. The
main thrust in the methodology is the development of a time series of images covering the 1970’s
to present. This will be acquired and assembled to depict the nature of land use/cover in selected
sites during several epochs. This information would be combined with other available
environmental, demographic, and economical data in order to define a set of, mainly spatially-
land management and physical development polices and practices would provide recommendations
into the most appropriate scenario for sustainable development.
Figure 1: Methodology for the detection and analysis of land use/cover changes
4.1 Satellite images and reference data
Landsat Thematic Mapper and Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (TM/ETM+) imagery (Figure 2)
covering the study period of 1970 to present, will be used as the main data source for mapping land
use and land cover. Other reference data such as aerial photography and topographic maps at
nominal scale 1:25000 will be acquired for ground control and accuracy assessment.
Several images have already been identified and acquired to represent the land cover/use status in
the 1980’s, 1990’s and 2000’s. One major concern over the use of satellite images of a tropical
environment such as of Trinidad and Tobago is the existence of cloud cover, even during the dry
seasons. Such a condition may limit the amount of information that may be extracted from these
images, and would create information gaps and loss of valuable data (Al-Tahir et al 2008). One
would expect that this problem would further be compounded when dealing with change detection
as images from different dates are used to identify the extent and type of changes in the land cover
and use in an area.
covering the study period of 1970 to present, will be used as the main data source for mapping land
use and land cover. Other reference data such as aerial photography and topographic maps at
nominal scale 1:25000 will be acquired for ground control and accuracy assessment.
Several images have already been identified and acquired to represent the land cover/use status in
the 1980’s, 1990’s and 2000’s. One major concern over the use of satellite images of a tropical
environment such as of Trinidad and Tobago is the existence of cloud cover, even during the dry
seasons. Such a condition may limit the amount of information that may be extracted from these
images, and would create information gaps and loss of valuable data (Al-
as images from different dates are used to identify the extent and type of changes in the land cover
and use in an area.
Figure 2: Satellite Image of Trinidad and Tobago
4.2 GIS data development
Developing the geographical profile for the study areas will involve documenting population trends
and identifying key social, economic and environmental issues that occurred over the past 30 years.
Consequently, the following information will be sought and used as reference information:
statistical data, existing LU/C and forestry maps, digital elevation model. This study will also
acquire and review documentations on land management and physical development policies and
practices to aid in understanding land use/land cover change. Additionally, a review of conservation
legislations in forested areas and wetlands will provide insight into the likelihood of expansion or
reduction of these areas.
and identifying key social, economic and environmental issues that occurred over the past 30 years.
Consequently, the following information will be sought and used as reference information:
statistical data, existing LU/C and forestry maps, digital elevation model. This study will also
acquire and review documentations on land management and physical development policies and
practices to aid in understanding land use/land cover change. Additionally, a review of conservation
legislations in forested areas and wetlands will provide insight into the likelihood of expansion or
reduction of these areas.
4.3 Field surveys
Field surveys will be conducted within the study areas to determine the major types of land use and
land cover. Such data would be used in two aspects of the mapping of LU/C cover. Firstly it will aid
in LU/C classification, by associating the ground features of a specific type of land use and land
cover with the relevant imaging and spectral characteristics. Secondly, ground data will be used for
accuracy assessment of the developed land use and land cover maps.
land cover. Such data would be used in two aspects of the mapping of LU/C cover. Firstly it will aid
in LU/C classification, by associating the ground features of a specific type of land use and land
cover with the relevant imaging and spectral characteristics. Secondly, ground data will be used for
accuracy assessment of the developed land use and land cover maps.
4.4 Data Processing
Analysis and interpretation of satellite data will be done by digital image processing as depicted by
Figure 3. The process generally includes several steps:
1. Image pre-processing, this operation involves the correction of distortion, degradation and
noise introduced during the image processing;
2. Image enhancement, this procedure will be applied to the image in order to increase the
amount of information that can be displayed interactively;
3. Image classification, the objective of this operation is to replace visual analysis of the image
data with quantitative techniques for automating the identification of features in a scene.
4.5 Change Detection and Analysis
Figure 3: Image processing procedure for land use/cover mapping
The two approaches for land use and land cover change detection include post-classification
comparison and classification of multi-temporal data sets. The post-classification comparison
approach, will be adopted for this study, the advantage of this approach is its capability to provide
descriptive information on the nature of change that occurs.
descriptive information on the nature of change that occurs.
5 Conclusion
Land use land use/cover change can impact the country’s drive towards sustainable development
by affecting a wide range of natural processes. Therefore it is important that many old practices
that contribute to the country’s environmental deficit be identified and replaced with a new
approach that contributes to the improving and preservation of a healthy environment.
Literature has shown that the implementation of technical managerial skills can improve
environmental management measures. Hence the use of remote sensing and GIS has become the
most effective tool for assessing monitoring and illustrating all these changes. Remote sensing, as
with all technological media, increases productivity, as access to remotely sensed data is becoming
easier and more cost effective compared to conventional means of data acquisition.
However there are limitations in monitoring LU/C changes. Firstly the resolution of the imagery
can affect the accuracy in image classification and detecting changes in land features, for example
it may be difficult to distinguish forest land and agricultural lands. Secondly, to monitor changes
within an area, multi-date data is needed, also there maybe difficulties in acquiring data of
satisfactory quality. Another major limitation will include the frequency of cloud cover, which
will lead to inconsistency in the data. Thus, it is expected that this study has to deal with removing
these clouds and their shadows from the acquired satellite images, and to fill the gaps with relevant
and concurrent data. Aerial photography would definitely provide a valid alternative. However,
the concern would be adopting the appropriate approach for extracting information in format and
scale compatible to those of the satellite images.
by affecting a wide range of natural processes. Therefore it is important that many old practices
that contribute to the country’s environmental deficit be identified and replaced with a new
approach that contributes to the improving and preservation of a healthy environment.
Literature has shown that the implementation of technical managerial skills can improve
environmental management measures. Hence the use of remote sensing and GIS has become the
most effective tool for assessing monitoring and illustrating all these changes. Remote sensing, as
with all technological media, increases productivity, as access to remotely sensed data is becoming
easier and more cost effective compared to conventional means of data acquisition.
However there are limitations in monitoring LU/C changes. Firstly the resolution of the imagery
can affect the accuracy in image classification and detecting changes in land features, for example
it may be difficult to distinguish forest land and agricultural lands. Secondly, to monitor changes
within an area, multi-
will lead to inconsistency in the data. Thus, it is expected that this study has to deal with removing
these clouds and their shadows from the acquired satellite images, and to fill the gaps with relevant
and concurrent data. Aerial photography would definitely provide a valid alternative. However,
the concern would be adopting the appropriate approach for extracting information in format and
scale compatible to those of the satellite images.
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|
Indicator Name |
Indicator Description |
|
|
|
|
Land use and Settlement Patterns |
This set of indicators is related to the general pattern of land use, with more emphasis
on human settlement pattern. Possible sub- · Land use types · Human settlements (area) · Infrastructure · Abandoned land |
|
Vegetation Cover |
This indicator focuses on the loss of natural vegetation cover in a country with implied impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem integrity. Other related sub- · Vegetation Index · Forest cover (area) · Plant composition |
|
Loss Cover |
This measures the rate of loss or gain of natural vegetation cover in countries. A related indicator is: · Deforestation and afforestation |
|
Fragmentation of Land and Habitat |
This is an alternative measure for pressure on ecosystems resulting from fragmentation into discontinuous pieces. It also relates to habitat disturbance and degradation. A related indicator is: · Forest fragmentation (metrics) |
|
Degradation |
This indicator highlights the breakdown of ecosystems which leads to decreasing biodiversity, soil quality, resilience against natural events and the assimilative capacity of the environment. This may include: · Erosion and soil loss · Runoff rate · Soil salinization and fertility (organic matter) |
|
Topography |
This set of indicators considers the impact of terrain properties such as: · Elevation · Slope · Aspect |
|
Water |
This set of indicators is related to the availability and quality of water, such as: · Water quality · Water availability and requirements · Flooding severity and occurrence |